Adult Depression
Rumination on problems: A longitudinal analysis of a new measure of depressive rumination in the prediction of well-being
Clorinda E. Velez, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Quinnipiac University
Hamden, Connecticut
Elizabeth D. Krause, Ph.D.
Visiting Assistant Professor
Swarthmore College
Swarthmore, Pennsylvania
Kim Ngan Hoang, B.A.
Graduate Student
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Jane Gillham, Ph.D.
Professor
Swarthmore College
Swarthmore, Pennsylvania
Rumination predicts many mental health outcomes and is a core construct in the cognitive vulnerabilities to depression literature (Smith & Alloy, 2009). Perhaps the most popular measure of depressive rumination - the Ruminative Responses Subscale of the Response Styles Questionnaire (RRS; Treynor et al., 2003) - assesses repetitive thoughts about symptoms of depression, their causes, and their consequences. Although a focus on symptoms is in line with Response Style Theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991), which asserts that depressive rumination occurs in response to negative affect, notably absent from the measure are items tapping repetitive thoughts about problems or events, even though repetitive thinking about problems/events is included in measures of co-rumination and other related constructs (e.g., post-event processing, Clark & Wells, 1995) and has been identified as an area worthy of study in depressive rumination (Smith & Alloy, 2009). To address this measurement gap, we created the Rumination on Problems Questionnaire (RPQ). The RPQ was designed for use on its own and together with the RRS to capture depressive rumination about problems/events, and to align with measures of other ruminative/repetitive thinking processes. Prior cross-sectional analyses show the RPQ has a single factor, good internal reliability, and predicts depression, anxiety and stress over and above the RRS and co-rumination (Vélez et al., 2020).
The current study explored the predictive value of the RPQ using a longitudinal design and a wider range of outcomes. Our goal was to determine if the RPQ predicts mental health and wellness outcomes two months later, over and above established measures of rumination and co-rumination. Participants in the self-reported study were 234 undergraduates (18-24 yrs). Hierarchical regression analyses revealed T1 RPQ significantly positively predicted T2 symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress over and above T1 RRS, co-rumination, and baseline symptoms, βs = .21*, .26**, .22*. T1 RPQ significantly negatively predicted T2 life satisfaction and happiness over and above the same T1 measures and baseline scores, βs = -.17**, .16*. Once the RPQ was included in analyses, neither T1 RRS nor T1 co-rumination significantly predicted T2 depression, anxiety, stress, or happiness; T1 co-rumination significantly positively predicted T2 life satisfaction, β = .15**.
Our results further establish the strengths of the RPQ and demonstrate that rumination on problems/events prospectively predicts important mental health and wellness outcomes. Surprisingly, in the final step of the regression analyses, only the RPQ significantly predicted depression, anxiety, stress and happiness – neither the RRS nor co-rumination were significant. Co-rumination did significantly predict more life satisfaction over time, highlighting the adaptive aspects of co-rumination (e.g., strengthening friendships, Rose, 2021). Researchers interested in depressive rumination on problems/events may wish to include the RPQ on its own or in addition to the RRS. Further, if problem-focused rumination remains a significant risk factor in future work, addressing problem-focused rumination may be an important treatment or prevention target.